Abstracts
Abstracts - Day 1
IFAW
Roads and wildlife: what can we do?
Dr Colin Salter, WIRES
Raising Resilient Wombats: From Rehabilitation to Release in a Changing Climate
Dianna & Warwick Bisset, Wombeyan Caves
Abstract
Australia’s wildlife faces increasing environmental extremes, including prolonged heatwaves, devastating bushfires, and severe floods. Since the catastrophic fires and floods of 2020, we have focused on rehabilitating and releasing wombats while adapting our strategies to meet the challenges of a changing climate. Our goal is to raise resilient wombats capable of thriving in the wild despite these environmental threats.
This video presentation explores the real life journeys of wombats from their early stages in care through to post-release monitoring. Many wildlife carers successfully rehabilitate wombats, but limited information exists on long-term strategies beyond release. Drawing from our own experiences and knowledge shared by mentors and fellow carers, we aim to provide practical insights into improving survival outcomes. The paper contains useful details in an attempt to create the beginnings of a working
manual.
Key Topics Covered:
• Minimizing Human Imprinting: The risks of humanizing wildlife and real-life case Studies highlighting the importance of minimizing dependency in wombats.
• Training for Release: Implementing early training techniques that prepare wombats for Life in the wild.
• Soft-Release Strategies: Buddies, wombat doors and hands-off approaches to foster independence.
• Innovative Equipment: Boxes designed for lifelong use in care and "Wombatoriums"tailored for wombat needs.
• Soft-Release Pens: Case studies on their effectiveness and installations for the long term.
• Post-Release Support: Feeding and hydration stations, as well as techniques for Treating released wombats.
• Habitat Challenges: Mitigating the loss of usable burrows and protecting remaining habitats as climate conditions change.
• Wildlife Cameras: tips, tricks and recommendations.
Through this presentation, we aim to spark discussion, share lessons learned, and encourage more wildlife carers to support wombats beyond initial rehabilitation. We welcome collaboration and are always open to sharing our experiences with those interested in advancing wildlife conservation efforts.
Wildlife Health Australia and Wildlife Rehabilitators: Update and Next Steps
Lauren Bassett (presenter), Shana Ahmed, Joe Cashmore, Jo Walker, Tida Nou
Abstract
Wildlife Health Australia (WHA) have identified wildlife rehabilitators as a key group of stakeholders to engage with and are exploring how wildlife rehabilitators can be better integrated into Australia’s wildlife health systems. In 2023, WHA introduced WHA to this audience at the AWRC conference in Perth, explaining how we might be able to work together with rehabilitators. In 2024, to progress this work, WHA undertook a wildlife rehabilitators survey to gauge the knowledge rehabilitators have of WHA and our work, and their ideas for potential WHA/rehabilitator collaboration to help inform future WHA activities. Overall, we found that wildlife rehabilitators are interested in our work and keen to see how collaboration will benefit them and the animals they rehabilitate. There was strong interest in finding out about current wildlife health information and research. With this in mind, this presentation will provide an overview of (i) the WHA Wildlife Rehabilitator survey, (ii) next steps for additional WHA support for the wildlife rehabilitation sector and (iii) updates on significant disease events, available wildlife health guidance and factsheets summarising latest research and other WHA work of interest to the wildlife rehabilitation sector.
Frances Carleton - Wildtalk
Wildlife caring and learning about nature revitalisation: A possible lacuna in our climate change concerns
Prof Steve Garlick Dr Rosemary Austen, Possumwood Wildlife
Abstract
Human exceptionalism has contributed greatly to our current environmental mess, so can humans help to clean the mess up? We say they can, but it will require a different kind of knowing, a different kind of learning and different sources of knowledge, relations, and understandings. Such an approach eschews human superiority and dominance.
The present received approach to knowledge acquisition and learning with a ‘knowing about’ rather than a ‘knowing for’ ethic will simply continue the catastrophic outcomes for the planet that we see all around us. We have become too distracted by economic imperatives, markets and auditing and lost sight that environmental knowers include those who have had their placein nature for millennia.
In this paper we argue for a third way of knowing about nature revitalisation predicated on an ethic of care and ‘being for’ relationism with the natural world. Such an approach requires practical engagement at a community level, underpinned by kindness, compassion, trust and mutuality. It generates knowledge through the quality of the engagement with nature knowers rather than through remote assessable quantitative ways by decision makers disengaged with nature. Such engagement of humans with nature requires the application of all of our senses aswell as our emotions and cognition through all the cycles of nature.
Experienced wildlife carers have the qualities and experience through their micro care of animals that have been negatively impacted by a dysfunctional nature. They practice engaged learning with native animals as their core business. They have the kindness, compassion, patience, commitment to caring, and an understanding about wildlife behaviour and a unique knowledge about some of the key nature knowers that is not held by any others. They acquire this new knowledge about the natural world through upfront and personal relationships predicated on an intimate ‘being-for’ connection with wildlife, not simply knowing about them from a distance.
In this paper we provide a practical model of engaged relational learning that can be implemented at the community level that has the knowers of nature’s elements at its core. It’s a model that enables intimacy and action learning predicated on sensorial entanglement with a dynamic and spatially diverse living world.
Of Monotremes and Monitor lizards: Two climate change survivors
Peggy Rismiller, Pelican Research & Wildlife Centre, Kangaroo Island, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide
Abstract
While Monotremes have only 3 extant species there are at least 40 monitor lizards worldwide. Twenty-five of these can be found in Australia. Both monotremes and monitor lizards have evolutionary histories dating back over 110+ million years. Two iconic Australian species in these groups have already survived numerous climatic events including ice ages and green house atmospheres as well as other current aspects of encroaching climate change.
Thirty plus years of field research on Kangaroo Island has given me the opportunity to document aspects of two unique climate change survivors, the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and Rosenberg’s goanna (Varanus rosenbergi). As a monotreme, the echidna represents the longest/oldest surviving mammal on the planet. While Australian monitor lizards found their way to Australia only 15 million years ago, Rosenberg’s have a unique start inearly life that demonstrates evolution and adaptation to changes in climate.
Both echidnas and Rosenberg’s goanna have high tolerances to CO2 levels, a growing concern in today’s world. Both echidnas and goannas are heterotherms, meaning their body temperature is not stable, but can vary daily as well as seasonally. Body temperature is directly related to thermal vulnerability, i.e. response of an animal to increases or decreases in ‘normal’ temperature. Body temperature variation of a species is rarely spoken about in wildlife rehabilitation. Variability in body temperature has a direct effect on tolerance to change. Heterothermic responses in echidnas and goannas include reduced heart rate, respiration and metabolism. All these physiological attributes have advantages for long term survival through time and changes in climate.
Facts about echidna and Rosenberg’s goanna biology and physiology will be presented. How do these aspects compare to marsupials? How or can understanding echidna and Rosenberg’s survival strategies contribute to or change the approach to Australian wildlife rehabilitation of other species in face of climate change?
The Gathering Storm: Caring for Wildlife in Uncertain Times.
Lori-Ann Shibish, MTM, Western Australian Seabird Rescue Inc
Abstract
Australia faces a complex and escalating extinction crisis, driven by a synergistic combination of
habitat degradation, climate change, invasive species, anthropogenic disturbances, and disease. The increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related events are particularly challenging for wildlife rescue and rehabilitation, with vagrant bird populations experiencing heightened vulnerability. Volunteer wildlife associations, while providing essential frontline support, operate under significant resource limitations. Addressing this crisis necessitates a multi-faceted approach, integrating government policy, scientific research, and community engagement to develop and implement effective conservation strategies and ensure the long-term resilience of Australia's unique biodiversity.
Survival of a wedge-tailed eagle after hallux talon amputation – a case report.
Ellen K. Rasidi1, BBiomedSc, BSc(Vet)(Hons), BVSc, Charlie I.O. Carter1, 2, BVSc(Hons), Dip Pract Mgt,
Peg J. McDonald 1, OAM, CF
1 Australian Raptor Care and Conservation Inc.,
2 Southern Highlands Veterinary Centre,
Abstract
In the rehabilitation sector, it has generally been accepted that amputation of the hallux deems an eagle non-releasable, as the hallux, or digit one, is necessary for successful hunting and carrying of live prey1. The four species of eagles found in North America, the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Stellar’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), and the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), are predominantly hunters of live prey, though all are opportunistic feeders and will scavenge carrion if it is available, though for all these species carrion forms a relatively small proportion of the diet. The Australian raptor rehabilitation sector, while much smaller than that of North America, bases many of its practices on literature from North America and the Middle East, and while not enshrined in any State code of practice2, eagles missing the hallux or the hallux talon are generally considered non-releasable. However, Australia’s largest eagle, the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), is a predominantly carrion-feeder, filling the ecological niche occupied by vultures elsewhere in the world. As vultures are reported to survive well after release if missing the hallux talon1, it is hypothesized that the post-release survivability of wedge-tailed eagles would not be adversely affected by the loss of this digit.
A fledgling wedge-tailed eagle was presented, having been found on the side of the road within the parent’s breeding territory. The bird was in reasonable condition, with radiographic and clinical pathology findings consistent with traumatic amputation of the distal phalanx of the right hallux. The amputation site was debrided and closed, and the bird released at the appropriate dispersal time for this species after four months of rehabilitation. A satellite telemetry device was mounted to the base of the rectrices3 to monitor post-release survival.
The bird was monitored remotely for 10 months after release. Initially the bird stayed within the natal territory before dispersing in typical behaviour for this species. During the time of monitoring, the bird covered a distance of just over 10,000km, over an area of approximately 450,000km2. This post-release behaviour is consistent with the recorded behaviour of intact, healthy juvenile and subadult wedge-tailed eagles4, and so we conclude that in this case, the loss of a hallux talon did not adversely impact the survival of this bird, and that hallux amputation may not preclude the release of individuals of this species in the future.
Abstracts - Day 2
Implications of climate change on the wildlife rehabilitator and the need for advanced training.
Greg Gordon
Abstract
The wildlife rehabilitator is no stranger to demanding and difficult situations. With the ever-increasing impact of climate change on Australian wildlife and their habitats there is no doubt that the challengers we will face will be significant.
Wildlife rehabilitation and all those involved in it, will not only be confronted with more frequent extreme events such as fire and floods, but significant changes to and loss of habitat. Moving forward the implications for the wildlife rehabilitator will be broad and demanding. Not only will there be more animals needing care but much compromised and diminished habitat to release them into. We must ensure that the released wildlife have the adaptive capability to live in a changing environment.
I see the role of the rehabilitator changing to having a more critical role in conservation of wildlife. We will need much more effective release procedures; we will need to have a much better understanding animal biology to ensure they have the capability to survive in a compromised environment.
I have been teaching animal care, including wildlife, for over 27 years, in that time I have always believed that you cannot care for animals properly unless you have a at least a basic understanding of their biology. To be better prepared this drastically changing future I am proposing the development and delivery of a course that will focus on wildlife biology. This will mostly be delivered online and at a reduced cost to all registered wildlife carers.
The topics covered will be presented at an introductory level but be wide ranging. The areas covered, but not limited to, will be ecology, microbiology, parasitology, genetics, basic plant biology, immunology, biochemistry, and animal behavior.
This will be a short course that will be delivered over 3 – 6 months.
Emergency Response for Wildlife - 5 Years on from the Black Summer Fires - Where are we now?
The NSW Wildlife Council (NWC)
Abstract
The NSW Wildlife Council (NWC) is the peak body for wildlife rehabilitation in New South Wales and works to achieve optimal outcomes for our wildlife. The NWC represents over 5,500 licensed wildlife carers across 32 regional groups. These groups are all not-for profit, charitable, almost entirely voluntary
and operate 24/7.
As we reflect on the 5 years since the Black Summer bush fires in Australia, it is timely to look at what we have learned and where are we now in the wake of that catastrophic season. There was a lot of talk and funding thrown around following that summer and one must ask if we have progressed productively and efficiently in preparation for the next big one.
We now know that these fires scorched more than 24 million hectares, killed 33 people directly, and killed or displaced nearly three billion animals – including 143 million mammals, 2.46 billion reptiles, 180 million birds, and 51 million frogs. Critical issues for the volunteer wildlife rescue and rehabilitation include:
• future emergency preparedness
• emergency evacuation planning
• resources for emergencies
• locating safe zones and triage centres for wildlife crisis events
• search and rescue operations in burnt out areas
• offering post fire support i.e. feeding, watering and nest box / hollow programs
• the provision of support services for wildlife carers
• ongoing monitoring and research on the impacts to our wildlife following major devastating events.
Importantly, native fauna is now included in state emergency response and incident management planning frameworks. Many volunteers have received training and mentoring in preparation for the future. The NWC is determined to ensure an immediate emergency response, support and care for surviving and injured native fauna and the wildlife rehabilitation sector is achievable.
Lorikeet Paralysis Syndrome (LPS)
Megan Johnston, Wildlife Vet Nurse, RSPCA, Qld
Abstract
The triage, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of lorikeets and the relationship with climate change. Consider the causes of LPS and rule out causes. Look at current theories and testing and admittance rates and release outcomes.
I explore the relationship between weather and admittance rates and identify hot spots and the peak season in South East Queensland. Triage and identify clinical signs of LPS and categorise severity. Establish treatment and rehabilitation plans for each category.
Pre-Release Health & Post-Release Fate of Rehabilitated Macropods
Joanne Connolly1, Geoffrey Dutton1, Elle Deane1, Deanna Duffy1, Jacqueline Marlow2, Ian Ralph2, Lauren Suffling3, Joan Reid2, Lorraine Woodward2, Margot Horder2, Mikala Welsh2, Lynleigh Greig2, Justine Steward2, Margaret St Hill4, Dianne Lane5 and John Palmer5.
1School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia. 2Sydney Wildlife Rescue, Duffys Forest, NSW, Australia. 3The School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia. 4Sydney Bushwalkers Club. 5Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service Inc. (WIRES), Riverina, NSW, Australia.
Abstract
Globally wildlife faces many threats from anthropogenic activities and climate change. In Australia 104,000 native animals are rescued and rehabilitated each year by 5,600 NSW licenced volunteers1. Wildlife in care mainly consist of orphans or animals that have sustained trauma (from vehicles, predators, natural disasters)2,3. Wildlife carers and veterinarians may also see common infectious diseases that may impact the recovery and release success of the wildlife in their care. The goal in rehabilitating wildlife is not only to improve welfare, but to ensure animals successfully reintegrate into the wild and survive. Outcomes such as mortality and time till release are easy to define, but post-release survival longer term and breeding is the ultimate measure of successful rehabilitation. There is little literature to guide decision-making during rehabilitation and treatment of disease, with a noticeable lack of critical post-release monitoring4-7. It is unknown whether these released hand-raised or rehabilitated animals survive and successfully reintegrate into wild populations or die. The code of practice and best practice guidelines recommend identifying individual animals before release and encourage wildlife rehabilitators to participate in post- release monitoring programs to determine survivorship8. Research of
the rescue, care and release phases of wildlife rehabilitation can identify factors that influence success.
The aim of this study was to perform a pre-release health assessment (including behavioural,fitness, body condition and blood analysis), followed by post-release monitoring (ear tags,GPS/VHF collars, visual observations, camera traps) of rehabilitated orphaned macropods at carefully considered release sites to measure and improve outcomes. Reference ranges were determined for blood analytes from healthy, hand-reared subadult macropods (40 Eastern grey kangaroos and ten swamp wallabies). Faeces were collected opportunistically for smears, faecal egg counts or cultures where indicated or frozen for future corticosteroid metabolite analysis as funding allowed.
In Wagga in the Riverina region of NSW, 32 macropods were ear tagged prior to release, with six trail cameras placed where kangaroos frequented a track with landholders observing for tagged animals. None on the 27 tagged kangaroos or 5 wallabies in the Riverina were reported injured, sick or dead by local landholders or veterinarians to date, but several individuals with tags have been seen on camera trap images including some that could be identified. At least one released rehabilitated female kangaroo had bred successfully with a pouch young observed in camera trap images. Two of five swamp wallabies were seen near their Riverina release site in bushland for several months after the release, one in the company of a red necked wallaby.
In the Northern Beaches region of Sydney NSW, four hand-reared orphaned swamp wallabies were released into bushland with ear tags, GPS/VHF collars and monitored also with camera traps for up to 12 months. One wild rescued “control” swamp wallaby was also released with a collar and ear tag. The five wallabies established different but somewhat overlapping home ranges, mostly moving up to light scrub and adjacent back lawns during the night and then deeper, denser forest downhill during the daytime. One wallaby was found dead killed by a fox after 14 weeks, another observed with tick-induced dermatitis was darted for examination, treatment and collar removal after 21 weeks, another had the safety release triggered and the collar dropped off after 30 weeks, while another remains at the release site still collared after 9 months. The swamp wallabies continue to be detected and identified using the 14 camera traps across the release site. During the study there was a hazard-reduction burn close to the swamp wallaby release site, which may have impacted released and wild animals in the area. The hand-reared swamp wallaby home ranges appeared smaller than anticipated, and prophylactic use of ectoparasiticides, fox control and predator training were recommended.
The combination of spatial analysis, along with camera trap images and visual observations of tagged animals provided data on movements, animal interactions, home ranges and survival times.
The Gang-gang
Peggy J. McDonald, OAM CF 1, 2
1 Higher Ground Raptor Rehabilitation Centre 2, Mt Darragh Road, Lochiel, NSW 2549
2 Australian Raptor Care and Conservation Inc., 48 Berrima Rd, Moss Vale, NSW 2577
Abstract
A distinctive and charismatic Australian cockatoo, the Gang-gang (Callocephalon fimbriatum) is the smallest of our black cockatoo species1. They typically inhabit specific highland old-growth areas in southern Victoria and central-eastern New South Wales, some moving to warmer coastal regions in summer. They are also adapting to exotic foods found in urban areas such as in the ACT, where in 1997 they became the faunal emblem.
Gang-gang numbers had been declining for decades before they were initially, in 2004, listed as a vulnerable species primarily due to habitat loss and climate change1. This listing helped in enhancing the recognition and understanding of their kind. In 2004 the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW OEH), following much lobbying, listed the Gang-gang cockatoo as a vulnerable species in NSW1. The species’ future survival was impacted significantly by the 2019-2020 Black Summer bushfires due to substantial life and habitat loss in the already limited areas they populated.
This catastrophic event, just twenty years on from the original listing, saw them gain both NSW and Commonwealth status as endangered.
In the early 1990s, the author began researching Gang-gang rehabilitation and breeding after
receiving one from the National Parks and Wildlife Service, as this field was not well understood. This bird established its endearing characteristics and intelligence during the rehabilitation and demonstrated that in this situation maintaining their health, wild nature, and feather condition required dedication and diligence. It is beyond tragic to still see a Gang-gang self-mutilate from stress, or not survive due to ignorance, neglect, or poor management.
Despite multiple agency efforts to reverse the decline in the population, such as those by NSW OEH and Birdlife Australia, the challenges faced by the Gang-gang cockatoo continue to require ongoing attention and action.
The author will discuss the species' nature in the wild and in care, including their food requirements and essential rehabilitation advice, using both verbal explanations and images. We will examine how our sector can prepare individual birds to return and survive in their natural habitat, thereby assisting in the repopulation of this significant member of Australia's avian community.
Wombat Abundance: Perception vs. Reality in a Changing Climate
Yolandi Vermaak, Wombat Support and Rescue ACT/NSW (Wombat Rescue)
Abstract
Wombat populations are often subject to misinterpretation, with their natural fluctuations in abundance sometimes being perceived as "plague" levels. However, without empirical data, such assessments can be misleading, leading to inappropriate management responses.
This talk explores how wombat population density varies across different landscapes and how some areas with high abundance show no associated environmental or agricultural issues.
Furthermore, climate change is altering habitat conditions, potentially shifting wombat distribution and influencing local population densities. Changes in rainfall patterns, extreme weather events, and vegetation dynamics may create the illusion of sudden population booms or declines. Understanding what constitutes "normal" for wombats is critical for evidence-based land management and conservation strategies.
By integrating climate considerations with robust population monitoring, we can ensure that wombat management is based on science rather than perception.
AWRC National Committee - PANEL
Veterinarians - PANEL
Do Rehabilitated and Hand-reared Flying-foxes Survive in the Wild?
Kerryn Parry-Jones1 Sue Preston2 and Anja Divljan3
1School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney NSW.
2Wildlife Animal Rescue and Care Society Inc., Gosford, NSW
3Australian Museum, Sydney NSW
Abstract
Flying-foxes that sustain injuries, fall ill, or are orphaned may find refuge in the care of rehabilitation societies across Eastern Australia. Following rehabilitation, these flying-foxes are released back into the wild, with uncertainty surrounding the success of the rehabilitation process and the survival of the released individuals. There was a general belief that hand-reared flying-foxes would struggle to adapt to the wild and that a significant number would die shortly after release. To address these concerns, a banding project was initiated in 1986 to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts and the viability of reintegrating flying-foxes into their natural habitat.
The primary objective of the project was to evaluate the success of rehabilitating flying-foxes in the wild, as well as to study their movements, longevity, and potential impact on species conservation. Over the course of 38 years, a total of 14,011 rehabilitated flying-foxes, predominantly the vulnerable Grey-headed Flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), were banded and released under the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme (ABBBS). While a significant number of banded flying- foxes remain unaccounted for post-release, those that have been recovered demonstrate that rehabilitated individuals can thrive in the wild, have extensive travel patterns, and contribute to the conservation of these species.
Zoos Victoria's Wildlife Outreach Program - Building Capacity For Assessing Native Wildlife Within General Practice Veterinary Professionals
Fiona Ryan, Senior Manager, Wildlife Welfare Programs, Zoos Victoria, Elliott Avenue, Parkville,Australia
Abstract
Australian wildlife veterinary medicine knowledge is a gap amongst general practice veterinary professionals, currently, there is no formal wildlife medicine training available.
In Victoria, general practice veterinary clinics that accommodate wildlife patients may lack awareness of what is acceptable medical intervention and treatment for native wildlife, compared with domestic species. This can result in unintentional inappropriate case management, a ‘give it a go’ approach and impacts on welfare and wild population health.
Zoos Victoria (ZV) has 3 dedicated wildlife hospitals, each housing a team of career wildlife veterinary professionals. ZV wildlife hospitals meet the needs of locally presenting wildlife, species requiring specialised care and referral patients, however the distances across Victoria mean it is not practical for animals with less severe injuries or those requiring euthanasia to make a long journey for veterinary assessment. That which can be performed by well-prepared local vets, with guidance and support available from ZV wildlife medicine experts.
Zoos Victoria's state-wide wildlife outreach program is aimed at teaching general practice veterinarians and veterinary nurses to apply existing veterinary training to the basic assessment and treatment of injured native wildlife. A program model encompassing in-situ workshops and quick reference materials where participants apply the learnt skills in their own clinical environments, resulting in developed capacity in the prognostic assessment of wild patients and increased local support for wildlife. With a sustainable program plan aimed at creating a network of veterinary clinics that are connected with each other, local environment agencies and supported by Zoos Victoria’s veterinary teams, where expertise and referrals are sought for patients, for in-situ decision making and improved welfare outcomes.
Abstracts - Day 3
H5 bird flu prevention and preparedness using the Wildlife Health Australia risk mitigation toolbox for wildlife care providers
Vicky Wilkinson, Rosie Stott, Leanne Renwick, Claire Harrison, Emily Glass, Tiggy Grillo, Simone Vitali
Abstract
H5 bird flu, also known as high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b, emerged in 2021 and has rapidly become the dominant strain of HPAI circulating globally, although it has yet to reach Oceania (which includes Australia and New Zealand). This strain has been a 'game changer’ for avian influenza viruses, causing more frequent outbreaks and affecting 300 bird species for the first time, as well as bringing sickness and death to wild birds, mammals (both wild and domestic) and poultry. For
Australia, H5 bird flu represents a serious threat to wildlife if it were to arrive here.
Wildlife care providers (WCP) play an important role in wildlife response and biosecurity enhancement in Australia. As such, WCP awareness of, and preparation for, the risk of H5 bird flu to WCP operations is integral to delivering a safe and effective response. To support WCPs in this process, and incorporating feedback from a range of stakeholders, Wildlife Health Australia has developed a risk mitigation toolbox that recognises the complex challenges that WCP facilities, such as wildlife hospitals, rehabilitation centres, individual rehabilitators or veterinary clinics, may face. This presentation will provide an overview of how the toolbox can be used by WCPs to develop plans that manage the risk of H5 bird flu both to staff and the wildlife in their care, by (i) enhancing awareness to ensure suspect cases are identified early, (ii) assessing and implementing critical biosecurity measures that reduce risks to human, animal and environmental health and (iii) aiding in preparations for response to and recovery from an outbreak in wildlife. We will then provide areal-world example of how the toolbox has contributed to the development of a HPAI response plan by Phillip Island Nature Parks.
Human activity in the urban environment impacts habitat choice and survival of Tiliqua rugosa rugosa within the Perth Metropolitan Area
Rebecca Millsteed, Murdoch University and Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre Perth, WA
Abstract
Increasing urbanisation is resulting in habitat fragmentation and degradation bringing humans and wildlife closer together. This introduces threats to wildlife from altered resource availability in urban habitats and direct consequences resulting from encounters with humans and their activities. One species seemingly adapted to urban living within the Perth metropolitan area, Tiliqua rugosa rugosa, is an endemic lizard species, commonly known as the bobtail. Bobtails are habitat generalists who use human-made elements in the modified urban environment to meet their survival needs. Unfortunately, this exposes them to threats from human activity resulting in the need for rehabilitation. This study examines the human impact on this species by identifying what they are most at risk from in urban habitats and how successfully they
are rehabilitated after suffering harm.
This was achieved by analysing admission data from Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre’s database to identify why bobtails were being admitted to care and from what types of habitats. GPS tracking was also conducted on bobtails after rehabilitation and release from Kanyana to assess their behaviour and survival as well as on wild caught individuals for comparison. Penetrating trauma, mostly from dog attacks was found to pose the most threat to bobtails accounting for 30- 40% of all admissions, followed by 16-24% for blunt trauma caused by motor vehicle collisions and injury from garden equipment. Bobtails are most at risk from trauma on private property with 68% of bobtails rescued there. Less than 50% of all trauma admissions had successful outcomes from the injuries sustained, although those that did survive were successfully rehabilitated and shown to return to normal behaviour post-release when compared to those in the wild.
Mean home range sizes of 4.49ha were recorded which did not differ for admission reason or release type. The home ranges of rehabilitated bobtails were comparable to wild bobtails regardless of whether they were returned to their rescue location or relocated. Wild bobtail populations in the Perth metropolitan area were assessed as generally healthy as were all rehabilitated bobtails for the duration of their post-release study with the only readmissions seen being for injuries unrelated to their initial need for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation of injured bobtails was assessed as successful with rehabilitated individuals showing normal movement and behaviour post-release indicating they had not been adversely impacted by their time in care. The modification of a personal GPS tracker was also included in this study to test for its suitability as a cheaper alternative for use in tracking bobtails.
Some Interesting Infectious Disease Cases with Neurological Signs in Marsupials in Rehabilitation
Joanne Connolly and Geoffrey Dutton
School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
Abstract
Introduction
Many infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites) capable of causing disease are present in the environment and are carried by apparently healthy animals. Orphaned or injured wildlife brought into care experience stress and may be immunocompromised, which increases the risk of developing and/or transmitting infectious disease. Disease is defined as any impairment of the normal structural or physiological state of an animal. Ill health may not be obvious in wild animals, as they have
evolved to hide signs from potential predators.
Neurological signs can occur in wildlife due to a variety of causes such as trauma (e.g. vehicle strike, dog attack), infectious agents (e.g. tetanus, toxoplasmosis, Cryptococcus), or toxin exposure (e.g. lead, pesticides), nutritional or metabolic (e.g. thiamine deficiency, hypoglycaemia), congenital disorders, or neoplasia. Signs of a neurological abnormality may include depression, blindness, seizures, tremors, head tilt or circling, weaving, incoordination, inability to feed, abnormal behaviour for the species or sudden death. Abnormalities of brain and nerves may be detected at post-mortem or by examining tissue sections following the death or euthanasia of the animal. The carer’s observations and records of antecedent events, knowledge of the animal’s usual behaviour as well as video of clinical signs (especially in the absence of people) can provide very helpful information. Performing a neurological examination on wildlife is challenging, as restraint or sedation will affect the
response of the nervous system.
Examples of clinical signs, diagnostic testing, post-mortem results and possible treatment of a case of toxoplasmosis in an orphaned wombat and cryptococcosis in an adult swamp wallaby will be provided after general details of these diseases in marsupials are discussed.
Toxoplasmosis in Marsupials
Toxoplasma gondii is a microscopic, intracellular protozoan parasite infecting a wide variety of animals worldwide. Many animals are infected, but do not develop clinical disease. Recurrence of latent infection may occur in stressed animals that were previously infected. Felids (cats) are the definitive host of the protozoa, with other warm-blood animals being intermediate hosts. A cat excretes millions of sporozoite-containing oocysts in its faeces for 2 to 23 days after the initial infection and in cool, moist conditions the oocysts can remain infective in the environment for up to 18 months. Transmission of Toxoplasma is by ingestion of food or water contaminated with sporulated oocysts from cat faeces, ingestion of tachyzoites or bradyzoites in tissue cysts in infected meat or in utero infection. Marsupials being remarkedly susceptible to the disease toxoplasmosis as they evolved in the absence of cats and lack innate immunity.
Clinical signs of toxoplasmosis can vary with the range of body systems affected, but neurological systems are most common. Other symptoms may include anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, respiratory signs (difficulty breathing, cough etc) or increased thirst. Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis may be confirmed using ante-mortem serological tests by submitting blood serum from the live animal (direct agglutination test for IgM antibodies (DAT), modified agglutination test for IgG (MAT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) etc) or post-mortem results. Frequently there are no abnormalities seen grossly (with the naked eye) or definitively at post-mortem. Histology (PAS- stained cysts in brain, heart, skeletal muscles, adrenals or lungs) and immunohistochemistry from formalin-fixed tissues (brain, heart and/or skeletal muscle immunoreactivity to anti-Toxoplasma gondii serum, with negative immunoreactivity to anti–Neospora caninum serum) and/or molecular diagnostics (polymerase chain reaction or PCR) from fresh or frozen tissues is diagnostic. A Toxoplasma gondii–specific fluorescent antibody test on tissue smears is also diagnostic.
Treatment of toxoplasmosis in marsupials with atovaquone at 100 mg/kg orally once daily for at
least 30 days has had some success in treating acute cases and eliminating infection. Efficiency of atovaquone has been shown in mouse models to be enhanced when combined with clindamycin, clarithromycin, pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine. Clindamycin alone or trimethoprim-sulphonamide orally have been tried often without success.
Prevention of toxoplasmosis in wild marsupials is difficult due to widespread environmental faecal contamination by feral cats. Minimising environmental exposure in marsupials in care to sporulated oocysts from cat faeces in contaminated food or water should reduce the risk of toxoplasmosis.There is currently no vaccine effective against Toxoplasma gondii.
Cryptococcosis in Marsupials
Cryptococcosis, is a sporadic disease caused by environmental fungus in the Cryptococcus gattii and C. neoformans species complexes, affecting a wide variety of animals globally with higher prevalence in animals from endemic areas (Australia, Papua New Guinea, South-East Asia, western Canada, California and Brazil). These two species are associated with decaying organic material, such as wood, soil and pigeon excreta. Cryptococcus gattii is more commonly the cause and has a strong environmental association with the hollows of eucalypt, paperbark and some other tree species. The fungus can switch between a yeast and a mould form, which enables it to infect, invade, evade and disseminate widely in the infected host animal. Animals inhale spores or desiccated yeast cells from the environment, which transiently colonise the respiratory tract or intestines but then may be cleared, become dormant or progress from a subclinical infection to cause potentially lethal disease. Dormant Cryptococcus can reactivate and spread from the lungs via the bloodstream or from the nasal cavity locally to the brain in animals that are immunosuppressed. Respiratory disease involving the nasal cavity, sinuses and lungs, and neurological disease following direct or haematogenous spread predominates in clinically affected marsupials, although disseminated disease or disease affecting other tissues may occur (entry with a penetrating injury can involve subcutaneous tissues and underlying bone). Cryptococcus is not known to be transmitted from animal to animal. In wildlife cryptococcosis appears to be more common in captive animals, and has been reported in koalas most frequently, but also Gilbert’s potoroo, long-nosed potoroo, parma and tammar wallaby, red kangaroo, quokka, bare-nosed wombat, brushtail possum, feather tail glider and sugar glider (Krockenberger 2005, Vaughan et al 2007, Thurber et al 2017, Krockenberger et al 2019, Martinez-Perez et al 2020). One case of cryptococcosis was reported in a captive swamp wallaby in a Zoo in Hanover, Germany (Lempp et al 2012).
Clinical signs of cryptococcosis can vary with the range of body systems affected, but respiratory and/or neurological systems are most commonly infected. Clinical signs of respiratory cryptococcosis include difficulty breathing, sometimes with aerophagia and gastric dilation, or asymptomatic pneumonia with or without dissemination. Cryptococcal infection of the central nervous system with meningoencephalitis results in signs such as seizures, head tilt, circling, falling over, or flickering eyes side-to-side or up-and-down (nystagmus). There may be a loss of appetite, accompanied by loss of condition and weight
loss.
A positive cryptococcal fungal culture from a nasal swab is insufficient evidence of infection. In cutaneous infections skin lesions or lumps are observed. In some cases, sudden death without preceding signs occurs. Diagnosis of cryptococcosis is by serology and fungal culture, sometimes supported by diagnostic imaging (radiography, CT) or endoscopy. Sera can be tested for antigens of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii using slide latex cryptococcal antigen tests (LCAT) or the newer lateral flow immunochromatography assay (CrAg LFA). The CrAg LFA test is often used as a screening test, followed by the LCAT for confirmation and determination of the titrefor following response to treatment. Positive fungal culture from a normally sterile site such as lung, CSF, pleural fluid, lymph node or bone is diagnostic, whereas a nasal swab may be transitory colonisation and not indicative of infection or disease. Cytology, histology or immunohistology of affected tissues in stained smears or sections from fine needle aspirates, biopsies or post-mortem specimens is diagnostic. Panfungal PCR from fresh tissues is more diagnostic than from formalin- fixed paraffin embedded block tissues.
Treatment of cryptococcosis in marsupials is extremely challenging. The use of fungistatic triazoles (fluconazole, itraconazole, posiconazole etc) can be effective, particularly in the early or subclinical infections. Amphotericin B is better for symptomatic or disseminated infections as it is fungicidal, but it can be nephrotoxic but can be managed by liposomal formulations or slow intravenous infusion, with blood tests to monitor and for renal damage and discontinue therapy if indicated.
A carer’s knowledge of the normal behaviour of the species and the individual, with good observation and record keeping helps picking up abnormalities in animals in care and assists the veterinary team with diagnosis. Early diagnosis of infections in marsupials can lead to more effective management and better outcomes. Good nutrition and attempting to reduce stressors can improve the overall health and immune function in wildlife in care. Hygiene and pest control can reduce the risk of infection in wildlife in care.
Victorian Wildlife Rehabilitation Guidelines
Zara Bennett
Abstract
Released in late 2023, the Victorian Wildlife Rehabilitation Guidelines (the guidelines) have been developed to incorporate evidenced-based best practice in wildlife care and rehabilitation to equip rehabilitators to deliver positive welfare outcomes for individual animals in their care, from first aid to post-release into the wild. Development of the guidelines was delivered in partnership between DEECA and Zoos Victoria.
Coming in at over 864 pages and covering 148 native species likely to come into care, the Guidelines are an extensive resource, presented in two parts (and published in four books):
• Part A (book 1) – Introduction (including relevant legislation and authorising environment); wildlife welfare; euthanasia; biosecurity and hygiene; and record-keeping templates for observations and hand-raising.
• Part B provides extensive detail on the care and rehabilitation of specific species under The following headings:
− (Book 2) Mammals: Bandicoots, Dasyurids, Echidnas, Flying foxes, Koalas, Macropods,Microbats, Native Rodents, Possums & Gliders and Wombats
− (Book 3) Birds: General birds, Raptors, Waterbirds and Marine birds
− (Book 4) Reptiles and Amphibians: Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Frogs.
The guidelines have long been anticipated from the wildlife rehabilitator community and are an important resource on best practice techniques and processes for the capture, transport, treatment, rehabilitation and release of sick, injured and orphaned wildlife in Victoria.
Significant consultation through a range of experts and key stakeholders has occurred through the peer review process and engagement survey including: experienced licensed wildlife shelter operators and foster carers; veterinarians; veterinary nurses; zookeepers; wildlife experts; representation from the Wildlife Welfare Communications Working Group (including Wildlife Victoria and RSPCA Victoria).
The guidelines also align the sector with the latest scientific literature on wildlife welfare and raise the standards of care across the sector.
Jacqui Marlow
Macropod Fence Hangers: Questions remain regarding successful treatment; especially
in relation to stress.
Dr Rosemary Austen, Prof Steve Garlick, Possumwood Wildlife
Abstract
In 2008 we presented our first paper on macropod fence hangers at the AWRC in Canberra. Seventeen years on we have learned a lot to assist wildlife caught in wire fences, but some questions remain. In this paper we review the achievements so far and outline where we need to go next.
The rescue and successful treatment and rehabilitation of macropod fence hangers is a topic that involves many areas of treatment; the successful rescue itself, fluid therapy, the treatment of hyper and hypothermia, lactic acidosis, diagnosis of hip dislocation, wound treatment, and Ischemic injury, physiotherapy and husbandry and the complicated topic of stress in macropods.
The area which still poses the greatest challenge is the successful treatment of stress in macropods. Unfortunately, macropods are still being euthanised because of a mildly elevated CK (creatine kinase) with the blanket statement ‘they have myopathy and will not survive’. Fence hangers often have severe exertional rhabdomyolysis due to prolonged hanging and struggling in a fence. Despite extremely high CK levels they can do very well with intensive fluid treatment and treatment for lactic acidosis if required.
Our observation is that those macropods who die due to stress go into what we call shut down - quite rapid onset of inappetence, hypothermia, weakness and respiratory arrest. Once a macropod shows these symptoms, normally they cannot be saved. We have looked at the polyvagal theory in relation to our observations in macropod shutdown.
Preparedness for and Response to Wildlife During Disasters
Fiona Ryan, Senior Manager, Wildlife Welfare Programs, Zoos Victoria, Elliott Avenue, Parkville,
Australia
Abstract
Wildlife populations face unique challenges in disasters, in that they cannot be evacuated and are solely dependent on the natural habitat for survival. Impacts occur through displacement, damage to habitat, loss of food and water resources as well as through associated injuries such as burns and other injuries sustained when attempting to flee from the danger. The 2019/2020 Australian bushfire season saw fires of unprecedented extent and intensity, resulting in an ongoing environmental crisis extending into the following months and years. To ensure efficient assessment of wildlife impacted by disasters, awareness of State Plans and the operating structures is important when considering involvement in response to wildlife in need. Responders should be clear on the appropriate pathways for supporting a response, to ensure their own safety, and to not inhibit the response from agencies. Additionally, the responder’s potential to assess impacted wildlife requires a basic understanding first aid and triage of wildlife that may present, to ensure positive welfare outcomes. Case decision making during emergencies must consider the welfare of animals in the context of the heavy draw on resources during a disaster and likelihood of significant habitat loss impacting release options.
Using Bluetooth Low Energy Tags To Estimate The Home Range And Social Structure of the White-Winged Choughs During The Non-Breeding Period.
Brendah Nyaguthii
Abstract
Home range and space use patterns are fundamental to understanding animals' ecology. These patterns provide insights into how animals interact with their environment as well as with others. There's still limited research that has been done to explore fine-scale social dynamics, especially in social species where interactions and space use patterns are vital. This requires several individuals in a group to be tagged to measure the co-occurrence of individuals with one another. Miniature tracking devices now provide opportunities for studying home range and space use patterns in smaller species. In this study, we utilized a state-of-the-art tracking system (Bluetooth low energy tags) to quantify the home ranges and social structure of the white-winged choughs (Corcorax melanorhamphos) during the non-breeding season, when resources are scarce. Studying home range and space use patterns during this period helps identify how animals change their behaviour when resources are limited, hence offering an opportunity to study movement outside the breeding season when they are not confined to their breeding home ranges. Overlapping home ranges play an important role in providing opportunities for association, but there appears to still be a lot of social choice taking place when groups encounter one another. Through the use of Bluetooth low energy tags, our findings provide an understanding of how home range and space use patterns influence association patterns in a group-living species outside the breeding context. The tags can also be useful for conservation monitoring and species management.
IFAW
Roads and wildlife: what can we do?
Dr Colin Salter, WIRES
Raising Resilient Wombats: From Rehabilitation to Release in a Changing Climate
Dianna & Warwick Bisset, Wombeyan Caves
Abstract
Australia’s wildlife faces increasing environmental extremes, including prolonged heatwaves, devastating bushfires, and severe floods. Since the catastrophic fires and floods of 2020, we have focused on rehabilitating and releasing wombats while adapting our strategies to meet the challenges of a changing climate. Our goal is to raise resilient wombats capable of thriving in the wild despite these environmental threats.
This video presentation explores the real life journeys of wombats from their early stages in care through to post-release monitoring. Many wildlife carers successfully rehabilitate wombats, but limited information exists on long-term strategies beyond release. Drawing from our own experiences and knowledge shared by mentors and fellow carers, we aim to provide practical insights into improving survival outcomes. The paper contains useful details in an attempt to create the beginnings of a working
manual.
Key Topics Covered:
• Minimizing Human Imprinting: The risks of humanizing wildlife and real-life case Studies highlighting the importance of minimizing dependency in wombats.
• Training for Release: Implementing early training techniques that prepare wombats for Life in the wild.
• Soft-Release Strategies: Buddies, wombat doors and hands-off approaches to foster independence.
• Innovative Equipment: Boxes designed for lifelong use in care and "Wombatoriums"tailored for wombat needs.
• Soft-Release Pens: Case studies on their effectiveness and installations for the long term.
• Post-Release Support: Feeding and hydration stations, as well as techniques for Treating released wombats.
• Habitat Challenges: Mitigating the loss of usable burrows and protecting remaining habitats as climate conditions change.
• Wildlife Cameras: tips, tricks and recommendations.
Through this presentation, we aim to spark discussion, share lessons learned, and encourage more wildlife carers to support wombats beyond initial rehabilitation. We welcome collaboration and are always open to sharing our experiences with those interested in advancing wildlife conservation efforts.
Wildlife Health Australia and Wildlife Rehabilitators: Update and Next Steps
Lauren Bassett (presenter), Shana Ahmed, Joe Cashmore, Jo Walker, Tida Nou
Abstract
Wildlife Health Australia (WHA) have identified wildlife rehabilitators as a key group of stakeholders to engage with and are exploring how wildlife rehabilitators can be better integrated into Australia’s wildlife health systems. In 2023, WHA introduced WHA to this audience at the AWRC conference in Perth, explaining how we might be able to work together with rehabilitators. In 2024, to progress this work, WHA undertook a wildlife rehabilitators survey to gauge the knowledge rehabilitators have of WHA and our work, and their ideas for potential WHA/rehabilitator collaboration to help inform future WHA activities. Overall, we found that wildlife rehabilitators are interested in our work and keen to see how collaboration will benefit them and the animals they rehabilitate. There was strong interest in finding out about current wildlife health information and research. With this in mind, this presentation will provide an overview of (i) the WHA Wildlife Rehabilitator survey, (ii) next steps for additional WHA support for the wildlife rehabilitation sector and (iii) updates on significant disease events, available wildlife health guidance and factsheets summarising latest research and other WHA work of interest to the wildlife rehabilitation sector.
Frances Carleton - Wildtalk
Wildlife caring and learning about nature revitalisation: A possible lacuna in our climate change concerns
Prof Steve Garlick Dr Rosemary Austen, Possumwood Wildlife
Abstract
Human exceptionalism has contributed greatly to our current environmental mess, so can humans help to clean the mess up? We say they can, but it will require a different kind of knowing, a different kind of learning and different sources of knowledge, relations, and understandings. Such an approach eschews human superiority and dominance.
The present received approach to knowledge acquisition and learning with a ‘knowing about’ rather than a ‘knowing for’ ethic will simply continue the catastrophic outcomes for the planet that we see all around us. We have become too distracted by economic imperatives, markets and auditing and lost sight that environmental knowers include those who have had their placein nature for millennia.
In this paper we argue for a third way of knowing about nature revitalisation predicated on an ethic of care and ‘being for’ relationism with the natural world. Such an approach requires practical engagement at a community level, underpinned by kindness, compassion, trust and mutuality. It generates knowledge through the quality of the engagement with nature knowers rather than through remote assessable quantitative ways by decision makers disengaged with nature. Such engagement of humans with nature requires the application of all of our senses aswell as our emotions and cognition through all the cycles of nature.
Experienced wildlife carers have the qualities and experience through their micro care of animals that have been negatively impacted by a dysfunctional nature. They practice engaged learning with native animals as their core business. They have the kindness, compassion, patience, commitment to caring, and an understanding about wildlife behaviour and a unique knowledge about some of the key nature knowers that is not held by any others. They acquire this new knowledge about the natural world through upfront and personal relationships predicated on an intimate ‘being-for’ connection with wildlife, not simply knowing about them from a distance.
In this paper we provide a practical model of engaged relational learning that can be implemented at the community level that has the knowers of nature’s elements at its core. It’s a model that enables intimacy and action learning predicated on sensorial entanglement with a dynamic and spatially diverse living world.
Of Monotremes and Monitor lizards: Two climate change survivors
Peggy Rismiller, Pelican Research & Wildlife Centre, Kangaroo Island, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide
Abstract
While Monotremes have only 3 extant species there are at least 40 monitor lizards worldwide. Twenty-five of these can be found in Australia. Both monotremes and monitor lizards have evolutionary histories dating back over 110+ million years. Two iconic Australian species in these groups have already survived numerous climatic events including ice ages and green house atmospheres as well as other current aspects of encroaching climate change.
Thirty plus years of field research on Kangaroo Island has given me the opportunity to document aspects of two unique climate change survivors, the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and Rosenberg’s goanna (Varanus rosenbergi). As a monotreme, the echidna represents the longest/oldest surviving mammal on the planet. While Australian monitor lizards found their way to Australia only 15 million years ago, Rosenberg’s have a unique start inearly life that demonstrates evolution and adaptation to changes in climate.
Both echidnas and Rosenberg’s goanna have high tolerances to CO2 levels, a growing concern in today’s world. Both echidnas and goannas are heterotherms, meaning their body temperature is not stable, but can vary daily as well as seasonally. Body temperature is directly related to thermal vulnerability, i.e. response of an animal to increases or decreases in ‘normal’ temperature. Body temperature variation of a species is rarely spoken about in wildlife rehabilitation. Variability in body temperature has a direct effect on tolerance to change. Heterothermic responses in echidnas and goannas include reduced heart rate, respiration and metabolism. All these physiological attributes have advantages for long term survival through time and changes in climate.
Facts about echidna and Rosenberg’s goanna biology and physiology will be presented. How do these aspects compare to marsupials? How or can understanding echidna and Rosenberg’s survival strategies contribute to or change the approach to Australian wildlife rehabilitation of other species in face of climate change?
The Gathering Storm: Caring for Wildlife in Uncertain Times.
Lori-Ann Shibish, MTM, Western Australian Seabird Rescue Inc
Abstract
Australia faces a complex and escalating extinction crisis, driven by a synergistic combination of
habitat degradation, climate change, invasive species, anthropogenic disturbances, and disease. The increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related events are particularly challenging for wildlife rescue and rehabilitation, with vagrant bird populations experiencing heightened vulnerability. Volunteer wildlife associations, while providing essential frontline support, operate under significant resource limitations. Addressing this crisis necessitates a multi-faceted approach, integrating government policy, scientific research, and community engagement to develop and implement effective conservation strategies and ensure the long-term resilience of Australia's unique biodiversity.
Survival of a wedge-tailed eagle after hallux talon amputation – a case report.
Ellen K. Rasidi1, BBiomedSc, BSc(Vet)(Hons), BVSc, Charlie I.O. Carter1, 2, BVSc(Hons), Dip Pract Mgt,
Peg J. McDonald 1, OAM, CF
1 Australian Raptor Care and Conservation Inc.,
2 Southern Highlands Veterinary Centre,
Abstract
In the rehabilitation sector, it has generally been accepted that amputation of the hallux deems an eagle non-releasable, as the hallux, or digit one, is necessary for successful hunting and carrying of live prey1. The four species of eagles found in North America, the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Stellar’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), and the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), are predominantly hunters of live prey, though all are opportunistic feeders and will scavenge carrion if it is available, though for all these species carrion forms a relatively small proportion of the diet. The Australian raptor rehabilitation sector, while much smaller than that of North America, bases many of its practices on literature from North America and the Middle East, and while not enshrined in any State code of practice2, eagles missing the hallux or the hallux talon are generally considered non-releasable. However, Australia’s largest eagle, the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), is a predominantly carrion-feeder, filling the ecological niche occupied by vultures elsewhere in the world. As vultures are reported to survive well after release if missing the hallux talon1, it is hypothesized that the post-release survivability of wedge-tailed eagles would not be adversely affected by the loss of this digit.
A fledgling wedge-tailed eagle was presented, having been found on the side of the road within the parent’s breeding territory. The bird was in reasonable condition, with radiographic and clinical pathology findings consistent with traumatic amputation of the distal phalanx of the right hallux. The amputation site was debrided and closed, and the bird released at the appropriate dispersal time for this species after four months of rehabilitation. A satellite telemetry device was mounted to the base of the rectrices3 to monitor post-release survival.
The bird was monitored remotely for 10 months after release. Initially the bird stayed within the natal territory before dispersing in typical behaviour for this species. During the time of monitoring, the bird covered a distance of just over 10,000km, over an area of approximately 450,000km2. This post-release behaviour is consistent with the recorded behaviour of intact, healthy juvenile and subadult wedge-tailed eagles4, and so we conclude that in this case, the loss of a hallux talon did not adversely impact the survival of this bird, and that hallux amputation may not preclude the release of individuals of this species in the future.
Abstracts - Day 2
Implications of climate change on the wildlife rehabilitator and the need for advanced training.
Greg Gordon
Abstract
The wildlife rehabilitator is no stranger to demanding and difficult situations. With the ever-increasing impact of climate change on Australian wildlife and their habitats there is no doubt that the challengers we will face will be significant.
Wildlife rehabilitation and all those involved in it, will not only be confronted with more frequent extreme events such as fire and floods, but significant changes to and loss of habitat. Moving forward the implications for the wildlife rehabilitator will be broad and demanding. Not only will there be more animals needing care but much compromised and diminished habitat to release them into. We must ensure that the released wildlife have the adaptive capability to live in a changing environment.
I see the role of the rehabilitator changing to having a more critical role in conservation of wildlife. We will need much more effective release procedures; we will need to have a much better understanding animal biology to ensure they have the capability to survive in a compromised environment.
I have been teaching animal care, including wildlife, for over 27 years, in that time I have always believed that you cannot care for animals properly unless you have a at least a basic understanding of their biology. To be better prepared this drastically changing future I am proposing the development and delivery of a course that will focus on wildlife biology. This will mostly be delivered online and at a reduced cost to all registered wildlife carers.
The topics covered will be presented at an introductory level but be wide ranging. The areas covered, but not limited to, will be ecology, microbiology, parasitology, genetics, basic plant biology, immunology, biochemistry, and animal behavior.
This will be a short course that will be delivered over 3 – 6 months.
Emergency Response for Wildlife - 5 Years on from the Black Summer Fires - Where are we now?
The NSW Wildlife Council (NWC)
Abstract
The NSW Wildlife Council (NWC) is the peak body for wildlife rehabilitation in New South Wales and works to achieve optimal outcomes for our wildlife. The NWC represents over 5,500 licensed wildlife carers across 32 regional groups. These groups are all not-for profit, charitable, almost entirely voluntary
and operate 24/7.
As we reflect on the 5 years since the Black Summer bush fires in Australia, it is timely to look at what we have learned and where are we now in the wake of that catastrophic season. There was a lot of talk and funding thrown around following that summer and one must ask if we have progressed productively and efficiently in preparation for the next big one.
We now know that these fires scorched more than 24 million hectares, killed 33 people directly, and killed or displaced nearly three billion animals – including 143 million mammals, 2.46 billion reptiles, 180 million birds, and 51 million frogs. Critical issues for the volunteer wildlife rescue and rehabilitation include:
• future emergency preparedness
• emergency evacuation planning
• resources for emergencies
• locating safe zones and triage centres for wildlife crisis events
• search and rescue operations in burnt out areas
• offering post fire support i.e. feeding, watering and nest box / hollow programs
• the provision of support services for wildlife carers
• ongoing monitoring and research on the impacts to our wildlife following major devastating events.
Importantly, native fauna is now included in state emergency response and incident management planning frameworks. Many volunteers have received training and mentoring in preparation for the future. The NWC is determined to ensure an immediate emergency response, support and care for surviving and injured native fauna and the wildlife rehabilitation sector is achievable.
Lorikeet Paralysis Syndrome (LPS)
Megan Johnston, Wildlife Vet Nurse, RSPCA, Qld
Abstract
The triage, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of lorikeets and the relationship with climate change. Consider the causes of LPS and rule out causes. Look at current theories and testing and admittance rates and release outcomes.
I explore the relationship between weather and admittance rates and identify hot spots and the peak season in South East Queensland. Triage and identify clinical signs of LPS and categorise severity. Establish treatment and rehabilitation plans for each category.
Pre-Release Health & Post-Release Fate of Rehabilitated Macropods
Joanne Connolly1, Geoffrey Dutton1, Elle Deane1, Deanna Duffy1, Jacqueline Marlow2, Ian Ralph2, Lauren Suffling3, Joan Reid2, Lorraine Woodward2, Margot Horder2, Mikala Welsh2, Lynleigh Greig2, Justine Steward2, Margaret St Hill4, Dianne Lane5 and John Palmer5.
1School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia. 2Sydney Wildlife Rescue, Duffys Forest, NSW, Australia. 3The School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia. 4Sydney Bushwalkers Club. 5Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service Inc. (WIRES), Riverina, NSW, Australia.
Abstract
Globally wildlife faces many threats from anthropogenic activities and climate change. In Australia 104,000 native animals are rescued and rehabilitated each year by 5,600 NSW licenced volunteers1. Wildlife in care mainly consist of orphans or animals that have sustained trauma (from vehicles, predators, natural disasters)2,3. Wildlife carers and veterinarians may also see common infectious diseases that may impact the recovery and release success of the wildlife in their care. The goal in rehabilitating wildlife is not only to improve welfare, but to ensure animals successfully reintegrate into the wild and survive. Outcomes such as mortality and time till release are easy to define, but post-release survival longer term and breeding is the ultimate measure of successful rehabilitation. There is little literature to guide decision-making during rehabilitation and treatment of disease, with a noticeable lack of critical post-release monitoring4-7. It is unknown whether these released hand-raised or rehabilitated animals survive and successfully reintegrate into wild populations or die. The code of practice and best practice guidelines recommend identifying individual animals before release and encourage wildlife rehabilitators to participate in post- release monitoring programs to determine survivorship8. Research of
the rescue, care and release phases of wildlife rehabilitation can identify factors that influence success.
The aim of this study was to perform a pre-release health assessment (including behavioural,fitness, body condition and blood analysis), followed by post-release monitoring (ear tags,GPS/VHF collars, visual observations, camera traps) of rehabilitated orphaned macropods at carefully considered release sites to measure and improve outcomes. Reference ranges were determined for blood analytes from healthy, hand-reared subadult macropods (40 Eastern grey kangaroos and ten swamp wallabies). Faeces were collected opportunistically for smears, faecal egg counts or cultures where indicated or frozen for future corticosteroid metabolite analysis as funding allowed.
In Wagga in the Riverina region of NSW, 32 macropods were ear tagged prior to release, with six trail cameras placed where kangaroos frequented a track with landholders observing for tagged animals. None on the 27 tagged kangaroos or 5 wallabies in the Riverina were reported injured, sick or dead by local landholders or veterinarians to date, but several individuals with tags have been seen on camera trap images including some that could be identified. At least one released rehabilitated female kangaroo had bred successfully with a pouch young observed in camera trap images. Two of five swamp wallabies were seen near their Riverina release site in bushland for several months after the release, one in the company of a red necked wallaby.
In the Northern Beaches region of Sydney NSW, four hand-reared orphaned swamp wallabies were released into bushland with ear tags, GPS/VHF collars and monitored also with camera traps for up to 12 months. One wild rescued “control” swamp wallaby was also released with a collar and ear tag. The five wallabies established different but somewhat overlapping home ranges, mostly moving up to light scrub and adjacent back lawns during the night and then deeper, denser forest downhill during the daytime. One wallaby was found dead killed by a fox after 14 weeks, another observed with tick-induced dermatitis was darted for examination, treatment and collar removal after 21 weeks, another had the safety release triggered and the collar dropped off after 30 weeks, while another remains at the release site still collared after 9 months. The swamp wallabies continue to be detected and identified using the 14 camera traps across the release site. During the study there was a hazard-reduction burn close to the swamp wallaby release site, which may have impacted released and wild animals in the area. The hand-reared swamp wallaby home ranges appeared smaller than anticipated, and prophylactic use of ectoparasiticides, fox control and predator training were recommended.
The combination of spatial analysis, along with camera trap images and visual observations of tagged animals provided data on movements, animal interactions, home ranges and survival times.
The Gang-gang
Peggy J. McDonald, OAM CF 1, 2
1 Higher Ground Raptor Rehabilitation Centre 2, Mt Darragh Road, Lochiel, NSW 2549
2 Australian Raptor Care and Conservation Inc., 48 Berrima Rd, Moss Vale, NSW 2577
Abstract
A distinctive and charismatic Australian cockatoo, the Gang-gang (Callocephalon fimbriatum) is the smallest of our black cockatoo species1. They typically inhabit specific highland old-growth areas in southern Victoria and central-eastern New South Wales, some moving to warmer coastal regions in summer. They are also adapting to exotic foods found in urban areas such as in the ACT, where in 1997 they became the faunal emblem.
Gang-gang numbers had been declining for decades before they were initially, in 2004, listed as a vulnerable species primarily due to habitat loss and climate change1. This listing helped in enhancing the recognition and understanding of their kind. In 2004 the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW OEH), following much lobbying, listed the Gang-gang cockatoo as a vulnerable species in NSW1. The species’ future survival was impacted significantly by the 2019-2020 Black Summer bushfires due to substantial life and habitat loss in the already limited areas they populated.
This catastrophic event, just twenty years on from the original listing, saw them gain both NSW and Commonwealth status as endangered.
In the early 1990s, the author began researching Gang-gang rehabilitation and breeding after
receiving one from the National Parks and Wildlife Service, as this field was not well understood. This bird established its endearing characteristics and intelligence during the rehabilitation and demonstrated that in this situation maintaining their health, wild nature, and feather condition required dedication and diligence. It is beyond tragic to still see a Gang-gang self-mutilate from stress, or not survive due to ignorance, neglect, or poor management.
Despite multiple agency efforts to reverse the decline in the population, such as those by NSW OEH and Birdlife Australia, the challenges faced by the Gang-gang cockatoo continue to require ongoing attention and action.
The author will discuss the species' nature in the wild and in care, including their food requirements and essential rehabilitation advice, using both verbal explanations and images. We will examine how our sector can prepare individual birds to return and survive in their natural habitat, thereby assisting in the repopulation of this significant member of Australia's avian community.
Wombat Abundance: Perception vs. Reality in a Changing Climate
Yolandi Vermaak, Wombat Support and Rescue ACT/NSW (Wombat Rescue)
Abstract
Wombat populations are often subject to misinterpretation, with their natural fluctuations in abundance sometimes being perceived as "plague" levels. However, without empirical data, such assessments can be misleading, leading to inappropriate management responses.
This talk explores how wombat population density varies across different landscapes and how some areas with high abundance show no associated environmental or agricultural issues.
Furthermore, climate change is altering habitat conditions, potentially shifting wombat distribution and influencing local population densities. Changes in rainfall patterns, extreme weather events, and vegetation dynamics may create the illusion of sudden population booms or declines. Understanding what constitutes "normal" for wombats is critical for evidence-based land management and conservation strategies.
By integrating climate considerations with robust population monitoring, we can ensure that wombat management is based on science rather than perception.
AWRC National Committee - PANEL
Veterinarians - PANEL
Do Rehabilitated and Hand-reared Flying-foxes Survive in the Wild?
Kerryn Parry-Jones1 Sue Preston2 and Anja Divljan3
1School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney NSW.
2Wildlife Animal Rescue and Care Society Inc., Gosford, NSW
3Australian Museum, Sydney NSW
Abstract
Flying-foxes that sustain injuries, fall ill, or are orphaned may find refuge in the care of rehabilitation societies across Eastern Australia. Following rehabilitation, these flying-foxes are released back into the wild, with uncertainty surrounding the success of the rehabilitation process and the survival of the released individuals. There was a general belief that hand-reared flying-foxes would struggle to adapt to the wild and that a significant number would die shortly after release. To address these concerns, a banding project was initiated in 1986 to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts and the viability of reintegrating flying-foxes into their natural habitat.
The primary objective of the project was to evaluate the success of rehabilitating flying-foxes in the wild, as well as to study their movements, longevity, and potential impact on species conservation. Over the course of 38 years, a total of 14,011 rehabilitated flying-foxes, predominantly the vulnerable Grey-headed Flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), were banded and released under the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme (ABBBS). While a significant number of banded flying- foxes remain unaccounted for post-release, those that have been recovered demonstrate that rehabilitated individuals can thrive in the wild, have extensive travel patterns, and contribute to the conservation of these species.
Zoos Victoria's Wildlife Outreach Program - Building Capacity For Assessing Native Wildlife Within General Practice Veterinary Professionals
Fiona Ryan, Senior Manager, Wildlife Welfare Programs, Zoos Victoria, Elliott Avenue, Parkville,Australia
Abstract
Australian wildlife veterinary medicine knowledge is a gap amongst general practice veterinary professionals, currently, there is no formal wildlife medicine training available.
In Victoria, general practice veterinary clinics that accommodate wildlife patients may lack awareness of what is acceptable medical intervention and treatment for native wildlife, compared with domestic species. This can result in unintentional inappropriate case management, a ‘give it a go’ approach and impacts on welfare and wild population health.
Zoos Victoria (ZV) has 3 dedicated wildlife hospitals, each housing a team of career wildlife veterinary professionals. ZV wildlife hospitals meet the needs of locally presenting wildlife, species requiring specialised care and referral patients, however the distances across Victoria mean it is not practical for animals with less severe injuries or those requiring euthanasia to make a long journey for veterinary assessment. That which can be performed by well-prepared local vets, with guidance and support available from ZV wildlife medicine experts.
Zoos Victoria's state-wide wildlife outreach program is aimed at teaching general practice veterinarians and veterinary nurses to apply existing veterinary training to the basic assessment and treatment of injured native wildlife. A program model encompassing in-situ workshops and quick reference materials where participants apply the learnt skills in their own clinical environments, resulting in developed capacity in the prognostic assessment of wild patients and increased local support for wildlife. With a sustainable program plan aimed at creating a network of veterinary clinics that are connected with each other, local environment agencies and supported by Zoos Victoria’s veterinary teams, where expertise and referrals are sought for patients, for in-situ decision making and improved welfare outcomes.
Abstracts - Day 3
H5 bird flu prevention and preparedness using the Wildlife Health Australia risk mitigation toolbox for wildlife care providers
Vicky Wilkinson, Rosie Stott, Leanne Renwick, Claire Harrison, Emily Glass, Tiggy Grillo, Simone Vitali
Abstract
H5 bird flu, also known as high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b, emerged in 2021 and has rapidly become the dominant strain of HPAI circulating globally, although it has yet to reach Oceania (which includes Australia and New Zealand). This strain has been a 'game changer’ for avian influenza viruses, causing more frequent outbreaks and affecting 300 bird species for the first time, as well as bringing sickness and death to wild birds, mammals (both wild and domestic) and poultry. For
Australia, H5 bird flu represents a serious threat to wildlife if it were to arrive here.
Wildlife care providers (WCP) play an important role in wildlife response and biosecurity enhancement in Australia. As such, WCP awareness of, and preparation for, the risk of H5 bird flu to WCP operations is integral to delivering a safe and effective response. To support WCPs in this process, and incorporating feedback from a range of stakeholders, Wildlife Health Australia has developed a risk mitigation toolbox that recognises the complex challenges that WCP facilities, such as wildlife hospitals, rehabilitation centres, individual rehabilitators or veterinary clinics, may face. This presentation will provide an overview of how the toolbox can be used by WCPs to develop plans that manage the risk of H5 bird flu both to staff and the wildlife in their care, by (i) enhancing awareness to ensure suspect cases are identified early, (ii) assessing and implementing critical biosecurity measures that reduce risks to human, animal and environmental health and (iii) aiding in preparations for response to and recovery from an outbreak in wildlife. We will then provide areal-world example of how the toolbox has contributed to the development of a HPAI response plan by Phillip Island Nature Parks.
Human activity in the urban environment impacts habitat choice and survival of Tiliqua rugosa rugosa within the Perth Metropolitan Area
Rebecca Millsteed, Murdoch University and Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre Perth, WA
Abstract
Increasing urbanisation is resulting in habitat fragmentation and degradation bringing humans and wildlife closer together. This introduces threats to wildlife from altered resource availability in urban habitats and direct consequences resulting from encounters with humans and their activities. One species seemingly adapted to urban living within the Perth metropolitan area, Tiliqua rugosa rugosa, is an endemic lizard species, commonly known as the bobtail. Bobtails are habitat generalists who use human-made elements in the modified urban environment to meet their survival needs. Unfortunately, this exposes them to threats from human activity resulting in the need for rehabilitation. This study examines the human impact on this species by identifying what they are most at risk from in urban habitats and how successfully they
are rehabilitated after suffering harm.
This was achieved by analysing admission data from Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre’s database to identify why bobtails were being admitted to care and from what types of habitats. GPS tracking was also conducted on bobtails after rehabilitation and release from Kanyana to assess their behaviour and survival as well as on wild caught individuals for comparison. Penetrating trauma, mostly from dog attacks was found to pose the most threat to bobtails accounting for 30- 40% of all admissions, followed by 16-24% for blunt trauma caused by motor vehicle collisions and injury from garden equipment. Bobtails are most at risk from trauma on private property with 68% of bobtails rescued there. Less than 50% of all trauma admissions had successful outcomes from the injuries sustained, although those that did survive were successfully rehabilitated and shown to return to normal behaviour post-release when compared to those in the wild.
Mean home range sizes of 4.49ha were recorded which did not differ for admission reason or release type. The home ranges of rehabilitated bobtails were comparable to wild bobtails regardless of whether they were returned to their rescue location or relocated. Wild bobtail populations in the Perth metropolitan area were assessed as generally healthy as were all rehabilitated bobtails for the duration of their post-release study with the only readmissions seen being for injuries unrelated to their initial need for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation of injured bobtails was assessed as successful with rehabilitated individuals showing normal movement and behaviour post-release indicating they had not been adversely impacted by their time in care. The modification of a personal GPS tracker was also included in this study to test for its suitability as a cheaper alternative for use in tracking bobtails.
Some Interesting Infectious Disease Cases with Neurological Signs in Marsupials in Rehabilitation
Joanne Connolly and Geoffrey Dutton
School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
Abstract
Introduction
Many infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites) capable of causing disease are present in the environment and are carried by apparently healthy animals. Orphaned or injured wildlife brought into care experience stress and may be immunocompromised, which increases the risk of developing and/or transmitting infectious disease. Disease is defined as any impairment of the normal structural or physiological state of an animal. Ill health may not be obvious in wild animals, as they have
evolved to hide signs from potential predators.
Neurological signs can occur in wildlife due to a variety of causes such as trauma (e.g. vehicle strike, dog attack), infectious agents (e.g. tetanus, toxoplasmosis, Cryptococcus), or toxin exposure (e.g. lead, pesticides), nutritional or metabolic (e.g. thiamine deficiency, hypoglycaemia), congenital disorders, or neoplasia. Signs of a neurological abnormality may include depression, blindness, seizures, tremors, head tilt or circling, weaving, incoordination, inability to feed, abnormal behaviour for the species or sudden death. Abnormalities of brain and nerves may be detected at post-mortem or by examining tissue sections following the death or euthanasia of the animal. The carer’s observations and records of antecedent events, knowledge of the animal’s usual behaviour as well as video of clinical signs (especially in the absence of people) can provide very helpful information. Performing a neurological examination on wildlife is challenging, as restraint or sedation will affect the
response of the nervous system.
Examples of clinical signs, diagnostic testing, post-mortem results and possible treatment of a case of toxoplasmosis in an orphaned wombat and cryptococcosis in an adult swamp wallaby will be provided after general details of these diseases in marsupials are discussed.
Toxoplasmosis in Marsupials
Toxoplasma gondii is a microscopic, intracellular protozoan parasite infecting a wide variety of animals worldwide. Many animals are infected, but do not develop clinical disease. Recurrence of latent infection may occur in stressed animals that were previously infected. Felids (cats) are the definitive host of the protozoa, with other warm-blood animals being intermediate hosts. A cat excretes millions of sporozoite-containing oocysts in its faeces for 2 to 23 days after the initial infection and in cool, moist conditions the oocysts can remain infective in the environment for up to 18 months. Transmission of Toxoplasma is by ingestion of food or water contaminated with sporulated oocysts from cat faeces, ingestion of tachyzoites or bradyzoites in tissue cysts in infected meat or in utero infection. Marsupials being remarkedly susceptible to the disease toxoplasmosis as they evolved in the absence of cats and lack innate immunity.
Clinical signs of toxoplasmosis can vary with the range of body systems affected, but neurological systems are most common. Other symptoms may include anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, respiratory signs (difficulty breathing, cough etc) or increased thirst. Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis may be confirmed using ante-mortem serological tests by submitting blood serum from the live animal (direct agglutination test for IgM antibodies (DAT), modified agglutination test for IgG (MAT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) etc) or post-mortem results. Frequently there are no abnormalities seen grossly (with the naked eye) or definitively at post-mortem. Histology (PAS- stained cysts in brain, heart, skeletal muscles, adrenals or lungs) and immunohistochemistry from formalin-fixed tissues (brain, heart and/or skeletal muscle immunoreactivity to anti-Toxoplasma gondii serum, with negative immunoreactivity to anti–Neospora caninum serum) and/or molecular diagnostics (polymerase chain reaction or PCR) from fresh or frozen tissues is diagnostic. A Toxoplasma gondii–specific fluorescent antibody test on tissue smears is also diagnostic.
Treatment of toxoplasmosis in marsupials with atovaquone at 100 mg/kg orally once daily for at
least 30 days has had some success in treating acute cases and eliminating infection. Efficiency of atovaquone has been shown in mouse models to be enhanced when combined with clindamycin, clarithromycin, pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine. Clindamycin alone or trimethoprim-sulphonamide orally have been tried often without success.
Prevention of toxoplasmosis in wild marsupials is difficult due to widespread environmental faecal contamination by feral cats. Minimising environmental exposure in marsupials in care to sporulated oocysts from cat faeces in contaminated food or water should reduce the risk of toxoplasmosis.There is currently no vaccine effective against Toxoplasma gondii.
Cryptococcosis in Marsupials
Cryptococcosis, is a sporadic disease caused by environmental fungus in the Cryptococcus gattii and C. neoformans species complexes, affecting a wide variety of animals globally with higher prevalence in animals from endemic areas (Australia, Papua New Guinea, South-East Asia, western Canada, California and Brazil). These two species are associated with decaying organic material, such as wood, soil and pigeon excreta. Cryptococcus gattii is more commonly the cause and has a strong environmental association with the hollows of eucalypt, paperbark and some other tree species. The fungus can switch between a yeast and a mould form, which enables it to infect, invade, evade and disseminate widely in the infected host animal. Animals inhale spores or desiccated yeast cells from the environment, which transiently colonise the respiratory tract or intestines but then may be cleared, become dormant or progress from a subclinical infection to cause potentially lethal disease. Dormant Cryptococcus can reactivate and spread from the lungs via the bloodstream or from the nasal cavity locally to the brain in animals that are immunosuppressed. Respiratory disease involving the nasal cavity, sinuses and lungs, and neurological disease following direct or haematogenous spread predominates in clinically affected marsupials, although disseminated disease or disease affecting other tissues may occur (entry with a penetrating injury can involve subcutaneous tissues and underlying bone). Cryptococcus is not known to be transmitted from animal to animal. In wildlife cryptococcosis appears to be more common in captive animals, and has been reported in koalas most frequently, but also Gilbert’s potoroo, long-nosed potoroo, parma and tammar wallaby, red kangaroo, quokka, bare-nosed wombat, brushtail possum, feather tail glider and sugar glider (Krockenberger 2005, Vaughan et al 2007, Thurber et al 2017, Krockenberger et al 2019, Martinez-Perez et al 2020). One case of cryptococcosis was reported in a captive swamp wallaby in a Zoo in Hanover, Germany (Lempp et al 2012).
Clinical signs of cryptococcosis can vary with the range of body systems affected, but respiratory and/or neurological systems are most commonly infected. Clinical signs of respiratory cryptococcosis include difficulty breathing, sometimes with aerophagia and gastric dilation, or asymptomatic pneumonia with or without dissemination. Cryptococcal infection of the central nervous system with meningoencephalitis results in signs such as seizures, head tilt, circling, falling over, or flickering eyes side-to-side or up-and-down (nystagmus). There may be a loss of appetite, accompanied by loss of condition and weight
loss.
A positive cryptococcal fungal culture from a nasal swab is insufficient evidence of infection. In cutaneous infections skin lesions or lumps are observed. In some cases, sudden death without preceding signs occurs. Diagnosis of cryptococcosis is by serology and fungal culture, sometimes supported by diagnostic imaging (radiography, CT) or endoscopy. Sera can be tested for antigens of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii using slide latex cryptococcal antigen tests (LCAT) or the newer lateral flow immunochromatography assay (CrAg LFA). The CrAg LFA test is often used as a screening test, followed by the LCAT for confirmation and determination of the titrefor following response to treatment. Positive fungal culture from a normally sterile site such as lung, CSF, pleural fluid, lymph node or bone is diagnostic, whereas a nasal swab may be transitory colonisation and not indicative of infection or disease. Cytology, histology or immunohistology of affected tissues in stained smears or sections from fine needle aspirates, biopsies or post-mortem specimens is diagnostic. Panfungal PCR from fresh tissues is more diagnostic than from formalin- fixed paraffin embedded block tissues.
Treatment of cryptococcosis in marsupials is extremely challenging. The use of fungistatic triazoles (fluconazole, itraconazole, posiconazole etc) can be effective, particularly in the early or subclinical infections. Amphotericin B is better for symptomatic or disseminated infections as it is fungicidal, but it can be nephrotoxic but can be managed by liposomal formulations or slow intravenous infusion, with blood tests to monitor and for renal damage and discontinue therapy if indicated.
A carer’s knowledge of the normal behaviour of the species and the individual, with good observation and record keeping helps picking up abnormalities in animals in care and assists the veterinary team with diagnosis. Early diagnosis of infections in marsupials can lead to more effective management and better outcomes. Good nutrition and attempting to reduce stressors can improve the overall health and immune function in wildlife in care. Hygiene and pest control can reduce the risk of infection in wildlife in care.
Victorian Wildlife Rehabilitation Guidelines
Zara Bennett
Abstract
Released in late 2023, the Victorian Wildlife Rehabilitation Guidelines (the guidelines) have been developed to incorporate evidenced-based best practice in wildlife care and rehabilitation to equip rehabilitators to deliver positive welfare outcomes for individual animals in their care, from first aid to post-release into the wild. Development of the guidelines was delivered in partnership between DEECA and Zoos Victoria.
Coming in at over 864 pages and covering 148 native species likely to come into care, the Guidelines are an extensive resource, presented in two parts (and published in four books):
• Part A (book 1) – Introduction (including relevant legislation and authorising environment); wildlife welfare; euthanasia; biosecurity and hygiene; and record-keeping templates for observations and hand-raising.
• Part B provides extensive detail on the care and rehabilitation of specific species under The following headings:
− (Book 2) Mammals: Bandicoots, Dasyurids, Echidnas, Flying foxes, Koalas, Macropods,Microbats, Native Rodents, Possums & Gliders and Wombats
− (Book 3) Birds: General birds, Raptors, Waterbirds and Marine birds
− (Book 4) Reptiles and Amphibians: Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Frogs.
The guidelines have long been anticipated from the wildlife rehabilitator community and are an important resource on best practice techniques and processes for the capture, transport, treatment, rehabilitation and release of sick, injured and orphaned wildlife in Victoria.
Significant consultation through a range of experts and key stakeholders has occurred through the peer review process and engagement survey including: experienced licensed wildlife shelter operators and foster carers; veterinarians; veterinary nurses; zookeepers; wildlife experts; representation from the Wildlife Welfare Communications Working Group (including Wildlife Victoria and RSPCA Victoria).
The guidelines also align the sector with the latest scientific literature on wildlife welfare and raise the standards of care across the sector.
Jacqui Marlow
Macropod Fence Hangers: Questions remain regarding successful treatment; especially
in relation to stress.
Dr Rosemary Austen, Prof Steve Garlick, Possumwood Wildlife
Abstract
In 2008 we presented our first paper on macropod fence hangers at the AWRC in Canberra. Seventeen years on we have learned a lot to assist wildlife caught in wire fences, but some questions remain. In this paper we review the achievements so far and outline where we need to go next.
The rescue and successful treatment and rehabilitation of macropod fence hangers is a topic that involves many areas of treatment; the successful rescue itself, fluid therapy, the treatment of hyper and hypothermia, lactic acidosis, diagnosis of hip dislocation, wound treatment, and Ischemic injury, physiotherapy and husbandry and the complicated topic of stress in macropods.
The area which still poses the greatest challenge is the successful treatment of stress in macropods. Unfortunately, macropods are still being euthanised because of a mildly elevated CK (creatine kinase) with the blanket statement ‘they have myopathy and will not survive’. Fence hangers often have severe exertional rhabdomyolysis due to prolonged hanging and struggling in a fence. Despite extremely high CK levels they can do very well with intensive fluid treatment and treatment for lactic acidosis if required.
Our observation is that those macropods who die due to stress go into what we call shut down - quite rapid onset of inappetence, hypothermia, weakness and respiratory arrest. Once a macropod shows these symptoms, normally they cannot be saved. We have looked at the polyvagal theory in relation to our observations in macropod shutdown.
Preparedness for and Response to Wildlife During Disasters
Fiona Ryan, Senior Manager, Wildlife Welfare Programs, Zoos Victoria, Elliott Avenue, Parkville,
Australia
Abstract
Wildlife populations face unique challenges in disasters, in that they cannot be evacuated and are solely dependent on the natural habitat for survival. Impacts occur through displacement, damage to habitat, loss of food and water resources as well as through associated injuries such as burns and other injuries sustained when attempting to flee from the danger. The 2019/2020 Australian bushfire season saw fires of unprecedented extent and intensity, resulting in an ongoing environmental crisis extending into the following months and years. To ensure efficient assessment of wildlife impacted by disasters, awareness of State Plans and the operating structures is important when considering involvement in response to wildlife in need. Responders should be clear on the appropriate pathways for supporting a response, to ensure their own safety, and to not inhibit the response from agencies. Additionally, the responder’s potential to assess impacted wildlife requires a basic understanding first aid and triage of wildlife that may present, to ensure positive welfare outcomes. Case decision making during emergencies must consider the welfare of animals in the context of the heavy draw on resources during a disaster and likelihood of significant habitat loss impacting release options.
Using Bluetooth Low Energy Tags To Estimate The Home Range And Social Structure of the White-Winged Choughs During The Non-Breeding Period.
Brendah Nyaguthii
Abstract
Home range and space use patterns are fundamental to understanding animals' ecology. These patterns provide insights into how animals interact with their environment as well as with others. There's still limited research that has been done to explore fine-scale social dynamics, especially in social species where interactions and space use patterns are vital. This requires several individuals in a group to be tagged to measure the co-occurrence of individuals with one another. Miniature tracking devices now provide opportunities for studying home range and space use patterns in smaller species. In this study, we utilized a state-of-the-art tracking system (Bluetooth low energy tags) to quantify the home ranges and social structure of the white-winged choughs (Corcorax melanorhamphos) during the non-breeding season, when resources are scarce. Studying home range and space use patterns during this period helps identify how animals change their behaviour when resources are limited, hence offering an opportunity to study movement outside the breeding season when they are not confined to their breeding home ranges. Overlapping home ranges play an important role in providing opportunities for association, but there appears to still be a lot of social choice taking place when groups encounter one another. Through the use of Bluetooth low energy tags, our findings provide an understanding of how home range and space use patterns influence association patterns in a group-living species outside the breeding context. The tags can also be useful for conservation monitoring and species management.
